Commerce belongs to the branch of business. It is related to the process of trade and any kind of activity happening between two people and parties with the exchange of money.

The main role of commerce in business is distribution. Whatever the products are produced. If there is no availability of resources and raw material on time then there is no product ready for sale.

Commerce help in the distribution of all required resources by efficiently calculating and analyzing the situation so that the consumption process will be completed on time.

According to James Stephenson: Commerce is the well-planned process for the exchange of goods and services between two parties in the industrial world.

In a wide way: Commerce is that part of a business that includes all, directly and indirectly, activities related to buying and selling of any product with the exchange of money.

Importance of Commerce

There is other importance of commerce which are mentioned below:

• Satisfy human demand
• Raise standards of living
• Commerce generates link between producer and consumer
• Increase employment opportunity
• Increase the economy
• Help in the expansion of trade and aids
• Commerce help in growth in industrial development
• Encourage international trade by promoting its advantages
• Help underdeveloping country
• Commerce help in emergencies.

Satisfy Human Demand

Human demands are increasing day by day. Scholars divide human demands into two classes that are named as basic demands and secondary demands. Food, health, education, and a peaceful environment are included in basic needs while in secondary demand luxuries of life like electronics, vehicles, and easy means of communication are included.

Commerce help in the distribution of all required resources and raw material need for the consumption of product and goods on time. It also plays a vital role in trading which helps in the availability of any product and technology to the whole world. By this commerce somehow fulfills human never-ending desire and also promotes social welfare.

Raise Standard of Living

The standard of living relates to the lifestyle of members of society. If the majority numbers of people can afford to consume more and advanced products then their standard of living is high. To raise the standard of living, commerce plays a significant role by making every product available for every person around the globe.

To consume expensive and advanced products, consumers should be able to secure them first. Commerce basically helps to manage the right thing at the right place and thus able to improve the standards of living of humans.

Commerce generate link between consumer and producer

Products are produced for means of consumption. Consumption of products is the ultimate goal of companies and manufacturers. Commerce creates a link between seller and buyer through wholesalers and retailers. So that the product can reach their consumers on time.

Commerce helps to provide complete product information and specification to consumers through advertisements and salesmen. By conducting marketing research manufacture are well aware of the likes and dislikes of consumers.

This help to locate those specifications in a product to meet consumers’ need. By this commerce create a direct link between the manufacturer of the product and the consumer.

Increase employment opportunity

The growth of the commerce industry and trade increases the requirement of employees in their related corporate sectors like banks, transport, warehouse, and marketing.

The increase in their financial, marketing, and production process need more worker to handle it. It boosts the employment rate of the country by providing job opportunities to millions of people in it.

Increase the Economy

GDP of any country is directly related to production. Production and manufacturing contribute 80 percent of the net income of the country. Commerce helps in the growth of production and consumption of the product.

It also helps in the export and imports of goods from other countries. If any country needs raw material for the production of any good then they can import it through effective commerce. Thus we can say that commerce has a major role in the growth of the economy.

Help in the Expansion of trade and Aid

With the growth in the trade and commerce sector. There is a need for expansion and modernization seems in aids of trade. Aids of trade are related to sectors like banking, transport, finance, and marketing. With smooth and well-organized commerce, these means of aid to trade can be modernized and expanded to meet advanced world requirements.

Commerce help in growth in industrial development

Commerce helps in the smooth process of production and industrial development. Without efficient commerce, Keeping records and managing the data is very difficult. Commerce help to meet the consumer’s need by providing the desired product on time.

While on the other hand, it provides raw materials and goods to the manufacturer so that the production process will not be delayed. Hence we can say that commerce help in an increase of the growth in industrial development and production in the country.

Encourage International Trade

Through commerce, countries can exchange their surplus goods and products with other countries. With easy transportation and communication, countries can buy and sell their products internationally and earn foreign money. Foreign trade has some laws and international standards that save the countries from any loss and fraud.

Help under developing country

Underdeveloping and developing countries can import skilled labor and technical information from developed countries while developed countries can import raw material from under developing countries. These exchanges help to make the financial condition of the undeveloped countries stable.

Commerce help in Emergencies

During emergencies like natural disasters, earthquakes, floods, and wars. Commerce help to locate the essential requirement like food, medicine, and other reliefs to those areas for help.

Conclusion

Commerce is related to business. Effective commerce increases employment opportunities and demands of workers in its related sectors like banking, marketing, warehouses, and transport. Commerce helps to manage the record and data for efficient results.

It increases the industrial development and production level of the country. Commerce also plays a vital role in import and export and directly impacts countries’ GDP. So if countries pay interest in their commerce sector then it will give them benefits in different ways.

A joint venture can be generally defined as a business consensus in which more than one parties – shared owners – agree to pool their individual resources for some common business purpose. In doing so, each party holds responsibility of sharing the costs, profits, losses, and risks equally or as per their shares.

The term ‘joint venture’ generally means investment and typically entails a type of strategic partnership of individuals or companies, and that a particular partnership for which the joint venture is made, is expected to grow by the parties.

Although quite similar to a partnership, it exhibits some key differences with the latter. For example, while a joint venture is oriented about a single project, partnerships are usually about the ongoing business(s) in all regards.

Some other characteristics of the joint venture which are worth mind bearing are:

• Equally shared profits, losses and expenses.
• Termination when a project is completed (unless stated otherwise).
• The death of a person (also called as a joint venture) does not terminate the joint venture.
• No joint venture holds the power to terminate the joint venture in the middle of the project and thus the project has to be completed.
• Each party has a complete control to manage all the assets designed to be used in the joint venture, and
• A contract must exist between the parties entailing the workings of the joint venture.

There can be many types and varieties of joint ventures depending upon the scenarios under which a joint venture is being executed. To understand this, let us look at some of the types with examples to not only gain a comprehensive understanding about different concepts used in business regarding to joint ventures but also their possible applicabilities.

Affiliate Partnerships / affiliate marketing

An affiliate partnership is a type of joint venture in which two individuals, programs or businesses come in league with each other to promote the products of both the parties. It has also become the most common way of earning money online, and once established it can be a good source of passive income too.

For example, a blogger can become an affiliate venturer in that it affiliates a selected company e.g., by placing a link that would lead the readers directly to the site about which the blog has been written. In this way the blogger has done the job of promoting that company’s product via the affiliate link.

Affiliate Blogs are the best examples of an affiliate venturing. This is a product review site that will publish reviews regarding different types of products available on Amazon compiling them into lists and comparison tables ordered 1 to 10. This way, this site might be funded by Amazon which in turn gains traffic from another market channel which can be Google.

Real Estate Joint Ventures

It is a type of joint venture in which two or more parties agree to compile resources and work mutually for the development of a real estate project. Most common are the scenarios in which experts in the field of real estate management work with capital providers in the business.

A real estate joint venture can be explained by a scenario in which there is a company which owns a piece of land far away from where the company is located.

So, they find a person who lives in the same place where they own land and also that person holds expertise in construction and real estate management.

In this way, a joint venture can take place between these two parties whereby the company takes the responsibility of providing the capital and the expert takes care of the responsibilities if building the office.

Financing Agreements

It is a bit riskier type of joint venture agreement because it involves getting financial assist from a private party. It helps one to execute the business which might have been halted due to lack of proper capital investment. But, for risk management, often it is advisable to hire business lawyers for insurance of one’s legal rights.

Vertical Agreements

These are the agreements between two parties or organizations belonging to a production or distribution chains. These groups / parties / organizations create joint ventures thus coming together for a common goal with a given market.

It is typically a case in market between buyers and suppliers. In such cases, maximum gains are usually attained by suppliers while limiting the gains for buyers.

A suitable example for this type of joint venture comes from VitracEgypt – an Egyptian jam company. A person named Abdel Nour, the founder of his jam company, went into a joint venture with an Egyptian company Vitrac so that this company provides surplus fruits of Egypt and a French partner for providing the appropriate equipment and techniques for production of fruit jams.

Horizontal Agreements

A horizontal joint venture is a type of partnership in which different companies being in the same line of the business and transactions happens between these partner companies.

Moreover, these different companies may function so that e.g., if they are involved in selling a product, they will do so to their customers.

The term “finance” is associated with revenue and expenditure. Public finance is a branch of economics that deals with the government’s revenue and expenditures of an economy. If it is related to the private sector, it is called private finance.

Finance includes those means by which we make various types of payment. It may be defined as the provision of money at the time of need. In other words, it is the arrangement of money sources and the acquisition of funds for the satisfactory conduct of business activities.

Finance consists of providing and utilizing the money, capital rights, credit and funds of any kind which are employed in the operation of an enterprise.

George Terry

It may thus refer to investing in borrowing and spending of money with proper manners for the operation of the business.

Finance is important and essential for the success of any enterprise. Without proper finance, no business can be run smoothly. So a sufficient amount of capital must be provided in order to achieve desired results from the activities.

Sources of Business Funds

The balance sheet represents the amount that is supplied by the contributors. Assets are shown on the right-hand side of the balance sheet which refers to the use of funds. Liabilities are on the left side of the balance sheet which shows the sources of funds. These funds are employed temporarily by the creditors and are expected ultimately to be paid back with the sum they have advanced to the business. But owners make a permanent investment of funds to the business.

Creditors

This source of loan is obtained for short term intermediate and long periods. The repayment of this loan is made on an installment basis if it is more than one year. Creditor’s fund is generally grouped into the following main titles on the liabilities side of the Balance sheet.

Accounts Payable

This is the result of the supply of goods services to the customers. No credit document is used in this kind of credit dealings.

Notes Payable

It arises from the sale of goods, the supply of services, or a loan of funds from the financial institution. It is represented by a written document i.e. promissory note etc.

Securities

Large-size firms may issue secured or unsecured bonds or promissory notes when various term funds are required. It is divided up among a number of creditors. Each creditor holds written evidence or promises to pay for his share of the loan on a future date.

Mortgage

It represents that the firm has accepted a loan from the commercial bank or investment bank for a long period of time against the security of building, land, and machinery.

Outstanding

It refers to the accumulation of indebtedness amount up to the date of the closing books. These generally include the items which have accrued but have not been actually paid. They represent accumulating wages, rent, salaries, interest, and taxes which are found on the liabilities side of the Balance sheet.

Owners

The owner’s investment appears in the Balance sheet by various heads in various forms of Business Organization.

Sole Tradership

The invested amount by the owner may be increased by profit and decreased by losses and withdrawal. The owner’s interest in a sole tradership generally finds a single title in the Balance sheet.

Partnership

Owner’s interests are generally considered similar to the sole traders in the Partnership. But in the partnership, the profit is distributed among the number of partners and if there is any loss, the same partners are to bear it. Therefore the owner’s interest in the partnership is not constant but it may increase or decrease at a rate varying with the profit or loss of the firm.

Differences Between Public & Private Finance

Private: It deals with the revenue and expenditure of the private sector.

Public: It deals with revenue and expenditure of the government sector (public sector)

Time Period

Public finance is related to one year time period whereas private finance is concerned with daily, weekly, and monthly budgets, etc.

Income vs Expenditure

In public, revenue follows expenditure. On the other hand, in private finance expenditure follows revenue.

Deficit Financing

In the case of the deficit budget, Govt. can issue new notes. On the other hand, the private sector has no authority to issue new notes.

Nature of Budget

In the public sector, the deficit budget is appreciable. In the private sector, the surplus budget is appreciable.

Compulsory Loans

The government can take compulsory loans from different financial institutions to meet its expenditure whereas the private sector cannot do it.

Secrecy

A government budget is no more secret, rather Govt. publicizes its budget through T.V, Radio, etc. On the other hand, the private budget is tried to be kept secret.

Nature of Projects

In public finance, Government has to complete long term projects. On the other hand, the private sector has a short terms project to complete.

Nature of changes

Public finance is concerned with remarkable changes whereas the private sector is concerned with minor changes.

Written Document

A public budget is a written document whereas a private budget is not a written document.

Audit System

Govt. revenue and expenditure are regularly checked by an audit system. On the other hand, there is no audit system in private finance.

Foreign Assistance

The Government can depend upon foreign assistance but in private finance, there is no chance of any foreign aid.

Direct or Indirect Source of Income

In public finance, the source of income is indirect i.e., various taxes whereas in private finance source of income is direct.

Prior Sanction

Govt. takes prior sanction from its cabinet, national assembly, senate, etc whereas, no prior sanction is required from any authority.

Future Planning

There is long term planning while in private finance short term planning is the motive.

Use of Financial Resources

In public, the main objective is the social welfare of the people whereas, in private resources are used just for maximum personal satisfaction.

Record of Finance

The private may or may not keep the record of its finance whereas Govt. keeps the permanent record of its finance.

Finally

We can conclude that the finance of both the private and public sectors is concerned with revenue and expenditures. Anyhow, we can differentiate private and public finance on the basis of certain grounds.

Resolutions are communications embodying the views or intentions concerning some important matter. They are not addressed to anyone in particular and are drafted in the third person. A company resolution may be defined by Pitfield, “a formal declaration of the will or wishes of the company”.

Kind of Resolutions

Ordinary Resolution

An ordinary resolution is one which is passed by a simple majority of members entitled to vote such resolution is used for ordinary routine business at a general meeting of the company.

The notice is served in writing to each member for 21 days.

Ordinary Resolution Objective

This resolution is passed for the following purposes:

• To pass the accounts
• To appoint the directors
• To recommend the dividend
• To appoint or remove the managing agents
• To appoint the auditors and to fix their remuneration
• To adopt the statutory Report
• To authorize the issue of shares at discount etc
• To permit a director or his firm to hold an office of profit
• To permit a director or his firm to hold an office of profit

Special Resolution

This resolution is passed by a majority of not less than three-fourths of such members who are entitled to vote and who do votes, A copy of the resolution must be filed with the registrar’s office within fifteen days from the date of its adoption.

Under section 2 (36) the notice is given to each member for 21 days with the copy of resolution.

Objective of Special Resolution

The following types of business are conducted by special resolution.

• To reorganize the’ share capital of the company
• To change the name with the permission of the central Government
• To alter the articles of Association
• To reduce the share capital of the company
• To sanction additional remuneration to managing agents
• To appoint the inspectors to investigate the affairs
• To transfer the registered office from one state to another
• To initiate winding up by the court
• To sanction payment of interest out of capital during construction
• To create reserve liability
• To turn a private company into a public company

Extra Ordinary Resolution

An extraordinary resolution is one which is passed by a majority of not less than three-fourths of such members entitled to vote as are present in person. Proxy is also considered if it is allowed by the Articles of Association. A copy of this resolution must be submitted to the registrar within 15 days from passing thereof.

Fourteen days notice must be sent to each member for such resolution. The notice specifies the intention to propose the resolution as an extra ordinary resolution.

Objective of Such Resolution

• To remove the director from the office
• To wind up a company voluntarily on the ground that it cannot continue its business due to heavy liabilities
• To appoint’ another director in the place of the removed director

Important Note

For all kinds of meeting and resolution proxy and quorum will be considered as follows:

Proxy

The proxy may also be accounted if it is allowed by the Articles of Association Proxy form will be sent by the secretary along with notice of resolution of the meeting.

Quorum

The articles of Association will describe rules about quorum. If it is silent then under section 160, in case of a private company two-members present personally who represent not less than twenty-five per cent of the total voting power, either of their own account or as proxies. In the case of a public company not less than three members present personally who represent not less than twenty-five per cent of the total voting power, either of their own account or as proxies.

It is a popular type of business running across the globe under different territory-based rules and regulations. The driving factors of this business type are different characteristics, including its legal entity in the state, people’s trust, and many others. It is also a form of business like other businesses, including public limited companies, partnerships, and sole proprietorships.

A Joint Stock Company is a type of business that gives business ownership rights to shareholders by giving them a certificate of their shares. These shares can be bought or sold anytime from the people who already purchased them. There is unlimited liability of shareholders in the United States and Limited in Asian countries.

There are different types of joint-stock companies depending on their goal, design, their business model, their mission, vision, roles, and stakeholders. Each has its own advantages and disadvantage because of the many factors involved in different phases of the business cycle.

In Simpler words, a voluntary association made by different persons under state law for a specific reason is known as a Joint Stock Company. It started with the collection of initial investments by each member. This capital amount is divided into transferable shares with the liability of shares to their face value.

“A company is an artificial person created by law with a perpetual succession and a common seal.”

LORD JUSTICE LINDLEY

Companies are formed with legal ordinances under country law. There can be a minimum of 2 and maximum 50 numbers of shareholders in a Private limited company and a minimum of 7 to no maximum number of shareholders in a Public Limited Company.

The Board of directors are managers to operate its function under the law of the country – Different Nature of Company is the most popular business form for production and business on large scale. It has its own advantages & disadvantages.

Types of Joint Stock Company

1. Chartered Company

The company which is incorporated by the royal order is called a chartered company. Its power, rights, and functions are governed by the charter, issued at the time of formation. But this kind is not killed and formed in present days. Now all companies are registered under the company ordinance.

Examples

Chartered Mercantile Bank of India, Amsterdam Stock exchange, Chartered Bank of England, Muscovy Company.

2. Statutory Company

This company is formed by the order of the Governor-General President or Prime Minister or by a special act of the legislature. It is organized to carry on some business of national importance. The word “Limited” may not be used after the name of such a company. Each can exercise its particular power which is governed by the terms of its special Act.

3. Registered Company

It is incorporated under the company act. In our country, there is an ordinance in 1984 to form and supervise a registered company. It possesses a separate legal entity apart from its members.

Example

The registered company may be divided into the following groups

• Unlimited company.
• Company limited by guarantee
• Company limited by Shares

3.1 Unlimited Company

The shareholders of the unlimited company are liable to pay the debts and other obligations of the business as in an ordinary partnership.

Features of Unlimited Joint Stock Company

1. It is managed by the board of directions.
2. It has a separate legal entity.
3. There may be a large number of shareholders and
4. Its shares may be transferred to another person.

But despite the foregoing characteristics, the public does not like to form this type of company.

3.2 Company Limited by Guarantee

Where each member gives a guarantee to contribute a specified amount to the company on its winding up, such a company is said to be limited by guarantee. It may or may not also have share capital. If such a company has a share capital, the amount must be mentioned in the charter of the company.

It is not formed to earn profit but the object of the company is to promote social, cultural, and scientific activities such as clubs, chambers of commerce, welfare, and educational association.

3.4 Company Limited by Shares

Where the liability of each member is limited to the nominal amount of the shares which he holds is called a company limited by shares. If he pays the value of the shares, his liability will be nil. It is popular among different types of joint stock companies. It may be classified into two groups

What is the difference between Public & Private Companies?

PUBLIC	PRIVATE
There is no restriction for the maximum number of members but the minimum number must be seven.	There must be at least two members, but not more than fifty.
It can invite the public the subscription to its shares and debentures.	It cannot invite the public for a subscription to any type of security.
Its shares can be transferred and disposed of to other persons without any restriction.	Its members cannot transfer their shares to other persons.
Under section 174 the minimum number of directors is seven and the maximum number of directors can be appointed according to the provisions of its Articles of Association.	Its shareholders may elect at least two directors and the maximum number of directors will be described by the Articles of Association.
There is a compulsion by law to file the prospectus or statement in lieu of the prospectus with the local registrar’s office.	As it cannot issue the prospectus there is no restriction to submitting the prospectus to the registrar’s office.
It cannot obtain the certificate of commencement of business without fulfillment of the condition of minimum subscription.	There are no restrictive provisions made in the company ordinance to fulfill the requirements of minimum subscription before its incorporation.
It has to hold a statutory meeting and it has to submit the statutory report to the registrar within the prescribed time.	As it does not need to hold a statutory meeting there is no compulsion to submit the statutory report to the registrar’s office.
Every Public Company has to use the word Limited or “LTD” after its name.	A private company has to mention the “Private” Limited as the last word under section [16 (a) (i)]
A public company cannot start its business after obtaining a certificate of incorporation.	It can commence its business soon after receiving this certificate.
There is a compulsion to submit various reports, profit and loss accounts, Balance Sheets, and minutes to the registrar’s office.	There are no restrictions for the submission of some reports to the registrar’s office.
Some reports and statements must be published for public inspection.	There is no restriction for the publication of various statements for public inspection.
It must have to obtain this certificate for the commencement of business.	There is no provision by law to receive this certificate for the commencement of business.
Its working field is vast. It can attract a huge amount of capital. So it is possible to conduct heavy and large scale business.	Its capital and financial resources remain limited due to certain restrictions and hindrances so large-scale business cannot be arranged under this organization.

Public Company

To a company that is formed by at least seven members and there is no restriction i.e.

• for transferring shares
• for maximum numbers
• for the subscription of shares and debentures is called a public company.

Under section 2 (30), “Public Company” means a company that is not a private company,

Private Company

The company is formed by at least two members and there are restrictions i.e. {Section 2 (28)}

• for a maximum number of members (not more than fifty)
• for transferring of shares

for the subscription of shares and debentures is known as a private company.

How do you Convert a Private Limited Company into a Public Limited Company?

There are several restrictions on Private companies which may result in limited financial resources, limited production activities, and limited technical and administrative abilities. Due to these factors, a business may not be expanded and the private company faces high cost per unit, limited sales, and low profit. These hindrances constrain the to decision the conversion of a private company into a public company.

To convert into a public company, it is necessary to alter the articles of association by a special resolution. The following alteration has to be brought in the provision of the Articles of Association.

• Shareholders may transfer their shares.
• They may invite the public for the subscription of shares and debentures.
• A maximum number of shares i.e. fifty will be struck off from the Articles.

New Articles of Association will be submitted to the registrar’s office within two weeks of such alteration. The following necessary documents must be filed with the registrar’s office along with altered Articles of Association.

• A list of persons containing their names addresses and other particulars who have agreed to act as directors.
• The written consent of the directors.
• Declaration of the directors to take up their qualification shares
• Declaration of the directors that they have paid for their qualification shares or statement of the fact that they have already taken up and paid for their qualification shares.
• A prospectus or statement in lieu of a prospectus.
• A declaration from the directors or secretary or advocate that all the provisions of the Company ordinance have been fulfilled.

After submission of the foregoing documents to the registrar’s office Private Company may be converted into a Public Company.

Formation of the Company

The first stage in the formation of a company is that a few persons known as PROMOTERS get together to bring it into existence, to carry on a joint-stock business. They prepare certain necessary legal documents and take all steps necessary for the registration of the company. They convince responsible persons to act as the first directors of the company.

There must be a minimum of seven promoters in public companies and two promoters in private companies under the said ordinance. They have to prepare the following few documents which are to be filed with the Registrar of joint-stock companies of the province where the registered office of the company is to be situated; (Section 30)

• Memorandum of Association
• Articles of Association: When a company adopts Table ‘A’ in its entirety, it need not file any special articles, but this fact must be endorsed on the Memorandum of Association. These documents require a prescribed stamp and are signed by at least seven persons in case of a public company and at least two in case of a private company
• A statement showing the authorized or registered capital of the company
• A list of persons who have agreed to act as first directors of the company
• Their written consent to act as a director.
• Notice of the situation of the registered office of the company (Section 142)
• A written declaration by the directors to take up and pay for their qualification shares.
• A statutory declaration that the requirements of the law for registration have been duly complied with

Difference Between Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association

Memorandum of Association	Articles of Association
It is a fundamental charter of the company which defines its objects and power.	It contains the rules and regulations for the internal management and administration of the company.
It is the nature of the contract between the company and the outside world i.e. debenture holders, bankers, creditors, etc.	It does not create any type of contract but it establishes a relationship between the company and the inside persons.
It is the most important document of the company so it is called a primary document.	Its importance is considered next to the memorandum so it is known as a secondary document of the company.
It contains the aims, objects, and conditions upon which the company is granted incorporation.	It sets forth the provision by which the powers and aims described in the Memorandum are carried into effect.
It is compulsory for every company to have its Memorandum of Association. So it must be filed with the registrar’s office for its registration before the incorporation of the company.	It may or may not be submitted to the registrar for its registration. A company limited by shares may be incorporated without the Articles of Association of their own. So Table “A” of the company’s ordinance will be considered its “Articles.”
It is regarded as an unalterable document. However, it may be amended by special resolution and with the sanction of the court or central government.	Priority is not given by the Company ordinance to the Articles over Memorandum Association. In case of conflict with the Memorandum, the provisions of the Memorandum will be considered valid.
If there is any disagreement between Memorandum and Company Ordinance the provisions in the ordinance, will hold good.	It is the subsidiary of the memorandum and it cannot contain any provision contrary to the clauses of the memorandum.
It defines the limit beyond which the company cannot operate. This limit must include the provision of the company ordinance.	It contains the rules and regulations for the internal management and administration of the company.

Payment of the Requisite amount

The following payment would have also to be made to the Registrar:

• The requisite amount of duty on share capital.
• The prescribed amount of filing fees. This amount can be deposited into a government treasury.

Certificate of Incorporation

If the Registrar is satisfied that all legal formalities under the company’s ordinance have been complied with, he will issue a certificate of incorporation (Section 33). It means that (a) the company has been registered and the .liability of its member is limited (b) It has come into existence as a legal entity apart from its members.

A private company may start its business at once after obtaining this certificate. But the public company cannot commence its business without taking the following further steps.

Issue of Prospectus

The promoters have to issue a prospectus to invite the public to subscribe to its shares and debentures. A Private Company is not entitled to advertise this document. No prospectus may be issued unless a copy has been filed with the registrar. It must be signed by every person named in it as a director or his agent authorized in writing.

Allotment of Shares

When applications have been received from different persons, the directors will allot the shares to applicants. As the allotment is the acceptance of the offer of the applicant, and as such, constitutes a binding contract with the applicants.

Certificate of Commencement of Business

A public company may not commence its business unless the following documents are submitted to the registrar:-

Minimum Subscription

A statutory declaration on the prescribed form that the shares have been allotted to an amount not less in the whole than the minimum subscription.

Payment of Shares

Every director of the company has paid for the Company’s qualification shares.

Submission of Prospectus

The company has filed a prospectus or statement in lieu of a prospectus with the registrar.

Declaration Regarding condition

A statutory declaration by the secretary or one of the directors on the prescribed form that all. the conditions have complied with the company’s ordinance 1984.

After verifying these foregoing documents, the Registrar issues a certificate of commencement of business to the Public Company. Now this company is entitled to commence its business from the date of obtaining this certificate.

Why Joint Stock Company is Good? The most Amazing Advantages

Features & Advantages

Features	Advantages
Liability	Limited
Capital	Huge
Management	Expert
Life	Longest
Objective	Earn Profit
Opportunities	More
Confidence	More
Risk	Less
Entity	Legal
Transfer	Yes
Promotion	Yes
Business Expansion	Yes
Loss Risk	Less
Do Funds increase	Yes
Jobs	More
Flexible	Yes
Economies	Large Scale
Economic Activities	Increased
Bank Loans	Yes at Company Name
Roles	Numerous
Agreement	Can enter with your own name
Can change business nature	Yes
Members	Minimum 7 in Public Limited to no Maximum and 2-50 in Private Limited

Limited Liability

The liability of each shareholder is limited to the unpaid value of the share holds. If he has already paid the total value of the shares, his liability will be nil. The private assets of the members are not liable to settle the business obligations. But in sole leadership and partnership, the private property of owners is also to pay the debts of the business.

Larger Capital

As there is no restriction for the maximum numbers in the public company, it can attract huge capital from thousand of persons of varying incomes. Thus the problems of deficiency of capital may not arise in this organizational structure.

Expert Management

Joint stock companies hire professional directors in many ways as well as service qualified technical and administrative abilities due to their sound financial sources. The management is generally conducted by expert and professional directors.

So, its sources can be utilized to the maximum for productive purposes. They overcome the depression phase of the business cycle with their experience to retain in the market.

Long Life (Perpetual Succession)

It normally possesses a perpetual life. The death of a director or member cannot affect the life of the joint stock company. it has a separate life apart from its members. On the other side, the biggest disadvantage of a partnership is that the death of any partner may dissolve the partnership.

Objective of Formation

The basic object of the formation of the joint-stock company is to earn profit. While profit is not distributed among the shareholders but some portion of the profit is transferred to the reserve fund. So that it may be used in the time of emergency.

Opportunity for Investment

As the company can divide its ownership into shares of a small denomination, it is possible. All groups of society invest their amount in a joint stock company.

Public Confidence

A joint stock company is created by law and is supervised by legal authority. So this form of business can easily win the public confidence and faith. This is no added advantage of a company that the public feels no chance of fraud or misrepresentation.

The major difference between a partnership and a company is Public has less confidence in one-man ownership and partnership.

Growth of Heavy and Risky Industry

The heavy and risky industry may be started only under this organization due to the following factors.

• Limited liability.
• Larger capital.
• Better management and technical abilities.

Separate Legal Existence

It is created by law or by the particular Act of the company. it possesses separate legal existence apart from its members. So it can accept loans, hold property, make contracts,s and open bank accounts in its own name.

Transferability of Shares

The share of a public company may easily be transferred to another person and may be disposed of in the stock exchange market. So its members are ways in a position to withdraw their capital under its Acts.

Promotion of Thrift

The joint stock company provides opportunities for the general public the investment of their savings. So this tendency promotes the habits of savings and thrift among the public.

Expansion of Business

As it can attract a huge amount of capital from the issue of shares, debentures, and bonds, it is possible to increase its business activities for productive purposes. There is no limit to the maximum number of shareholders in the case of a public company, capital may be increased and large business may be commenced. But it is not possible in another form of the organization due to lack of capital.

Minimum Risk of Loss

There is a minimum chance of loss under this organization. If there is a loss it will be sustained by a large number of investors. So the hardship cannot be confined to a few hands as in the case of partnership.

Chances of Increasing Funds

A joint-stock company has wide power by law to raise its effective funds and capital by (a) sales of its debentures. (b) sale of its shares. (c) issue of secured and unsecured bonds ( In advanced counters) (d) Contracting loans on a mortgage of its assets.

Job Opportunity

The joint stock company provides job opportunities to millions of people working there in various industrial units.

Flexibility

As management of the company is conducted by a few persons known as the board of directors, they are in a position to bring new changes in the business. Capital sources and human abilities can be adjusted to the new situation. If the director is found indifferent in this respect he may be removed from his office.

Economies

It can enjoy the benefits and economy of large-scale production, management, and distribution. By introducing better methods of production they try to save or reduce unnecessary expenditures.

Growth of Economic activities

Joint stock companies increase the economic activities in the country. These provide the major source of revenue for the government. Industrial units produce goods at a large scale and thus provide the necessitates of life at a low price. so the healthy growth of joint stock companies may bring positive results in the economic structure of the country.

Loans at Company Name

The company can receive loans in its own name which are payable by the company itself. But in the partnership, the loans are obtained by the partners by their own names which creates various problems for them.

Roles

Its activities are controlled by many central or provincial departments. They are numerous rules which must have to be carried into effect by the company. It has to audit its account and submit various reports to Registrar’s office. It thus cannot operate freely without any interference.

Numbers of Members

There are large numbers of members in the joint stock company. In the case of a public company, the minimum number of members is seven and there is no restriction for the maximum number of members. In the case of a private company, the minimum number of members is two, and the maximum is fifty.

Agreements or Contracts

As a joint-stock company enjoys a separate existence it may enter into trade agreements in its own name.

Change the Nature of Business

In the partnership, the nature of the business may easily be changed with mutual consent from partners. But the object clause of the Memorandum of Association which also describes the nature of the business may not be changed except with the sanction of the court.

Why Joint Stock Company is Bad? 15+ Disadvantages

The Demerits

Why they are Bad?	Disadvantages
Is formation Easy?	Not really
Does it have high Expenses?	Yes, it has more expenses
Who has control?	Board of Directors
What is personal Interest in?	Generally, it faces shortages
Does it have troubles?	Yes it may
What about Responsibility?	Everyone is, but no one
Is it monopolistic?	Yes, after growth
Why there are conflicts?	Because of personal Interest
What is its social role?	It has many drawbacks
Is it corruption free?	It depends
Who holds the income?	It is in a few hands only
What are business Privacy Concerns?	There are no business secrets

Complicated Formation

The process of the formation of all types is very complicated. It requires a long time and formalities. Like, Director’s appointment, There are many legal documents that must be prepared and submitted to the registrar’s office before its formation.

Operational Expenses

A joint stock company is a costly organization. Certain fees and other charges during the operation are paid to the government. Many people are engaged in various departments and heavy salaries are paid to them. So its financial source is utilized in unproductive sectors.

Concentration of Control

The management of the joint-stock company is concentrated in a few hands known as the board of directors. The shareholders who are the actual owners are not entitled to participate in the affairs of the company. So, they cannot know the internal activities of the directors who take undue benefits from their ignorance.

Limited Personal Interest

Its ownership belongs to thousands of persons who do not know each other. Secondly, business activities are conducted by paid persons who do not take an interest to create a direct relationship with the public. So, a business may suffer a loss due to the absence of personal relationships.

Promotion of Speculation

The price of the shares fluctuates on the stock exchange due to various factors. This promotes careless speculation in the country which results in trouble for the public.

Lack of Responsibility

Directors generally employ their friends and relatives on key jobs. But these persons are incompetent and inexperienced to conduct and follow the affairs of the business. So they cannot perform their professional duties with great responsibility.

Growth of Monopoly

The growth of joint-stock companies leads to a monopoly which is always against the public interest. It trees to have monopolistic control over the market. So this becomes the cause of the suffering of the people and the dissolution of the small firm.

Conflict of Interest

There are various groups in the joint stock company who have different voting rights, power, and share in the dividend. This disparity creates a conflict of interest between shareholders and management groups and among different types of shareholders which results in misunderstanding friction and exploitation of shareholders.

An Absence of Mutual Spirit

It is highly essential for the successful operation of the company that there must be a spirit of mutual help among the members. But this quality cannot be found in the company due to the transferability of shares.

Social Drawbacks

The following are the drawbacks of the growth of a joint-stock company:

• Just the rate of wages is not paid to workers.
• Working conditions are not improved.
• Fringe benefits are not provided.
• Human prestige is injured.
• Devices of manipulation have been developed.
• An unhealthy atmosphere within the industry has affected the health of employees.

So the foregoing defects have created great hatred and discrimination between employers and employees.

Corruption and Fraud

Some shrewd promoters present a very bright picture in the prospectus to attract capital from the public. Thus they deceive innocent investors for the accomplishment of their selfish ends. Moreover, big industrialists create corruption in the political life of the country.

Concentration of Wealth

After the introduction of the joint stock company, the combination of the various business units has been taking place to a great extent which causes the concentration of wealth into a few hands. It has split up society into two groups i.e. rich and poor. The rich have become richer and the poor have become poor.

Leakage of Secrecy

As there is a compulsion by law for a public company to publish its accounts and submit various reports to the registrar, secrecy cannot be maintained forever. Employees may leak out the secrecy of trade agreements, techniques or production, formula, and other necessary matters.

Bogus Report

Directors know the internal affairs of the company, but they do not present a true picture before the shareholders in their respective meetings. So interested parties may not know the actual performance of their business.

Lack of Freedom

There is much interference during the operation of the joint-stock company from various government authorities. There is also a compulsion by law to submit various reports to the registrar’s office. So this organization cannot perform its function freely.

Methods for Director’s Appointment

In a joint stock company, shareholders are owners of the company too. Each shareholder’s certificate is its ownership paper. This paper can be sold and bought in the market without disturbing all processes.

Selection by Promoters

The first directors of the company are selected by promoters. Their names are generally laid down in the articles of association. But their appointment cannot be valid unless they submit the following two declarations to the Registrar’s offices.

1. Written consent to act as directors.
2. An agreement in writing to take and pay for his qualification share

The foregoing provision does not apply to a private company.

Appointed by the Subscribers

If the articles are silent to describe the first directors of the company, the subscriber to the memorandum is to be deemed the first directors of the company and subsequent directors are to be elected by shareholders in the general meeting.

Elected by Members

The first directors of the company have to retire on the occasion of the first annual general meeting, so the necessary number of directors will be elected by members, in this meeting. Thereafter all such directors shall retire on the expiry of the term laid down in section 180 of the companies ordinance 1984.

Nomination by the Directors

Natural Appointment

A casual vacancy is caused by death disqualification or the resignation of directors. It may generally be filled up by the board of directors without the prior consent of the shareholders. Such directors will hold office for the remainder of the term of the director in whose place he is appointed under section 180 in the Companies Ordinance 1984.

Special Appointment

In addition to the directors elected or deemed to have been elected by shareholders a company may have directors or other special interests by virtue of contractual arrangements under section 182 in the Companies Ordinance 1984.

NUMBER OF DIRECTORS

In the case of a Public Company

There must be at least seven directors for the management of the company under section 174 of the Company Ordinance 1984. A maximum number of directors are appointed according to the provision of the Articles of Association. Under Section 177 all directors shall be liable to retire on the expiry of the term laid down in section 180.

In the case of a Private Company

Its shareholders may elect at least two directors and a maximum number of directors will be described by the Articles of Association. The provision of the retirement of directors does not apply to a private company.

Role or Position of Directors

The directors are representatives of the shareholders. He is one of those persons who is authorized to conduct the management of the company. The directors are collectively known as the “Board of Directors.” They frame policies and take decisions to realize the objectives of the company.

Directors have two positions in the Joint Stock Company

As an Agent

Directors are considered special agents of the company and not ordinary agents. The contract made by them will bind the company so long as they act within the scope of their authority. So they are not personally responsible for the contracts they made on behalf of the company. As agents, they have the authority to act in all matters but their powers are limited by the Articles of Association.

As Trustee

• Directors are trustees for the company to some extent.
• They are the powers placed in their hand to exercise them for the company’s benefit.
• They are empowered to make calls, allot shares, to issue and forfeit shares.
• They are trustees of the company but not individual shareholders or any third person.

The Circumstances cause Winding Up

Expiry of Fixed Period

Where the period is fixed for the duration of the company by the Articles, it. maybe winding up on the expiry of the period. But the company has to pass an ordinary resolution in general meetings to wind up.

Happening of Event

A company may be wound up on the happening of the event on which (under the Articles) the company is to be dissolved.

Special Resolution

A company may be wound up voluntarily if the company passes a special resolution for this purpose.

Heavy Liabilities

A company may be wound up if the company passes an extraordinary resolution that it cannot continue its business due to its heavy liabilities.

The Ways to Dissolve Company

Statutory Report or Meeting: Procedure in Member’s Voluntary Winding Up

Where default is made in submitting the statutory report to the registrar’s office or in holding the statutory meeting within the prescribed time or any two consecutive annual general meetings under section 305 (b) in company ordinance 1984.

Statutory Declaration

The majority of directors make a statutory declaration of solvency for submission to the registrar intimating to him that have made a full inquiry into the company’s affairs, they are of the opinion that the company will be able to pay its debts in full within three years from the commencement f the winding-up,

Special / Ordinary Resolution

After the declaration of solvency has been submitted to the registrar, the company in general meeting passes the ordinary or special resolution as the case may be for the winding up of the company.

Appointment of Liquidator

The company in a general meeting appoints a liquidator to wind up the company’s affairs and distribute its assets. The remuneration of the liquidator may be fixed in this meeting. On the appointment of a liquidator, all the powers of directors and other officers end except so far as the company in its general meeting or the liquidator himself sanctions their continuance. Within ten days after the appointment of a liquidator, the notice regarding the appointment must be sent to the registrar.

Final Process of Winding Up

If the winding up continues for more than one year, the liquidator has to call a general meeting of the company at the end of each year. When the company’s affairs are fully wound up, he has to call the final meeting of the shareholders. At this meeting, the liquidator must submit a final account of the company’s affairs to the members. Within one week after the final meeting, the liquidator must file with the registrar a copy of the accounts and a return of the holding of the meeting. At the end of three months from the date of registration of return, the company is dissolved and its name is struck off the Register of Joint Stock Companies.

Inability to Pay Its Debts:
Creditors Voluntary Winding Up

Where the company is unable to pay its debts in the following situation. 

If a creditor whose debt exceeds $50,000 or one percent of its paid-up capital whichever is less under section 306

(a) Has served notice requiring payment and is not paid within 30 days.

If execution in favor of creditor remains unsatisfied or

If the court is fully satisfied that the company is quite unable to pay its debts.

The procedure for a creditor’s voluntary winding up is as follows:

Solvency Declaration

Statutory declaration regarding the solvency of the company is not necessary in case of the creditor’s voluntary winding up.

General Meeting

A general meeting of the company will be called for the purpose of passing the extraordinary resolution. This resolution is required for the winding up of the company because it cannot continue its business because of its liabilities.

Creditor’s Meeting

The company must call a meeting of the creditors on the same day or on the following day after the general meeting of the company. A notice must be sent in writing to each creditor for this purpose.

Statement of Company’s Position

The directors of the company must lay before the creditors a full statement of the company’s position, a list of creditors, and their estimated claims. A director of the company, appointed by other directors must preside at the creditor’s meeting.

Intimation to Registrar

The information regarding the notice of resolution passed must be sent to the registrar within ten days from the date of the creditor’s meeting.

Appointment of Liquidator

The creditors and the company at their respective meetings may nominate a person to act as liquidator. If different persons are nominated by creditors and companies respectively, the opinion of the creditors shall hold good.

Committee of Inspection

The creditors and the members at their respective meetings may appoint a committee of inspection consisting of five persons in each committee.

Liquidator’s Powers and Duties

The liquidator may exercise his power for the winding up of the company with the sanction of the committee of inspection or in the absence of a such committee, with the creditors.

Liquidator’s Remuneration

The liquidator’s remuneration is fixed by the committee of inspection or, if there is no such committee, by the creditors

After the Expiry of One Year

If winding up continues for more than one year, the liquidator must. call the meeting of .creditors and members at the end of each year. He must lay before the meeting an account of his acts for the winding up during the preceding year.

At the End of Winding Up

On completion of the winding up, the liquidators have to cal the final general meeting of the members and a meeting of creditors. The notice for these meetings must publish in the gazette and newspapers at least ten days before the meeting.

The liquidator has to lay out his reports regarding the accounts and assets of the company before the meeting. Within one week after the date of the meeting, the liquidator must submit to Registrar a copy of his accounts and a return of the holding of such meeting.

Dissolution of the Company

At the end of three months from the date of registration return, the company is dissolved and it ceases its legal entity.

Winding up a Joint Stock Company Under the Supervision of a Court

When the court is of the opinion that it is just and equitable that the company should be wound up due to its mismanagement, deadlock, fraud, or any other reasonable grounds.

Resolution

At first, the company has to pass special or extraordinary resolutions to wind up voluntarily.

Petition for Subject to Supervision

When there are frauds or irregularities in the voluntary winding up, the petition may be presented by one or more of the competent parties for winding up under the supervision of the court.

Supervision Order

If it thinks fit, the court may order that the voluntary winding up shall continue but subject to the supervision of the court and on such terms and conditions as the court thinks just.

Power of the Court

The court has the power to appoint an additional liquidator to remove any liquidator. But generally, the liquidator appointed by the company for the voluntary winding up continues in office subject to his giving of security.

Dissolution of the Company

When the supervision order is made, the liquidator may exercise all his powers in a voluntary winding up. On completion of the winding-up, the court will make an order that the company is dissolved.

Special Resolution

A Joint stock company may be wound up by the court if a special resolution is passed for this purpose.

Failure to Commence Business

When the company does not commence business within a year from its incorporation or suspends business for a year.

Reduction in the Number of Members

Where the number of members of a public company is reduced below seven or in the case of a private company below two.

A contract is an agreement between two or more persons to do or not to do some particular thing, such agreement being enforceable at law. According to section 2 (h) 1872 contract act, It is an agreement enforceable by law

Therefore, is an agreement the object of which is to create an obligation. In other words, It is a combination of two ideas- Agreement and obligation.

Contract = Agreement + Obligation

An agreement creating and defining obligation between the parties

SALMOND

“An agreement as the source of a legal commitment import that one party shall be bound to some performance, which the other shall have a legal right to enforce”.

LEAK

“This undertaking is an agreement enforceable at law made between two or more persons by which rights are acquired by one or more to act or forbearance on the part of the other or others”.

ANSON

Example

If there is an agreement between X and Y, that X will construct a house for Y, and Y will pay rupees 5 Laces to X, the agreement contracts.

The term agreement is wider than the term “Contract”. An agreement may exist without any legal obligation and it covers a variety of transactions that may not be enforceable by law.

All contracts are, therefore, agreements, but all agreements are not necessarily contracts. An agreement can be a contract only when it is enforceable by law.

Difference Between Void & Voidable Contract

Void	Voidable
An Agreement not enforceable by law is said to be void under section 2 (g). Such a contract is not enforceable by either party	An agreement that is enforceable by law at the option of one more of the parties thereto but not at the option of the others is a voidable contract under section 2(i).
A void agreement is null from very beginning	A voidable contract is held to be valid until it is avoided and till that time actions taken under it are entitled to protection in law.
Under this type of contract, no compensation is to be paid due to non-performance.	If a person rightfully revokes a contract, he has the right to receive compensation for loss or damage suffered by him due to the non-performance of the contract
A void contract can be objected to by any person joining this type of agreement	A voidable contract can only be objected to by the option of the person whose consent has been obtained by fraud, coercion, misrepresentation, and undue influence
The collateral agreement will become void in case of the void agreement due to the illegality of the object and consideration	This contract does not affect the collateral contract just as a void agreement.

Examples

If A delivers goods to B under a mistaken belief that B is C and B sells these goods to D, who is a bonafide purchaser, for value without notice, A can recover the goods from D because D purchased the goods from a man who had himself no title under a void contract.

If however, B obtains the goods from A by a fraudulent or misrepresentation and then sells them to D, a bonafide purchaser, A cannot recover the goods from D until A has avoided the contract with B.

Essentials of Valid Contract

Agreement

There should be an agreement between the two parties i.e. purposer and the acceptor. One makes the proposal and others accept it. The proposal and acceptance must be made in accordance with the rules contained in the contract Act.

Example

X Offers to sell his house to Y for Rs.7 laces Y accepts the offer to purchase the house for Rs.7 laces. This is an acceptance by which agreement may be made between the proposer and acceptor

Creation of Legal Relationship

The intention of the agreement must be to create legal relations between the proposer and the acceptor. The agreement must be capable of performing with terms clear and certain.

Example

X offers to sell his car to Y for Rs.3 laces and Y is ready to purchase it at Rs. 3 laces. There is a contract as it creates a legal relationship between X and Y.

Competent to Contract

Every person is not competent to enter into a binding contract. Under section II, the persons who are not competent to contract are those (i) who have attained the age of majority according to the law by which they are governed. (ii) Who are of sound mind, and (iii) who are not disqualified by any law to which they are subject. Minor has no capacity to contract so his agreement is void. He is not liable to perform what he has promised to do under an agreement.

Free Consent

For the validity of an agreement, it is essential that it must have been made with the free consent of the parties. Under Section 13, two or more persons are said to consent when they agree upon the same thing in the same sense. It is when there is consent that the parties are said to be of the same mind. When one party has a different thing in mind or when each understands the thing in a different way, there is no consent by the promise.

Under section 14, consent is said to be free when it is not caused by (1) Coercion (2) Undue influence (3) Fraud (4) Misrepresentation, or (5) mistake as defined in relevant sections. It is an important essential for the validity of a contract. Where there is consent, but not free consent, there is generally a contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was not free.

Consideration

Consideration is indispensable for every contract. An agreement is invalid if it has been concluded without any consideration. It is an act i.e. past, present, or future done or to be done at the request of the promisor, by the promise, or any other person. For the validity of an agreement, the consideration must be lawful

Example

X agrees to sell his car to Y for Rs.5 laces. Here X’s promise to sell his car is for Y’s consideration to pay Rs.5 laces. Similarly, Y’s promise to pay Rs.5 laces is for X’s consideration to sell his car to Y

Capability of Performance

The contract must be made for definite, certain, and capable performance terms. An agreement, the meaning of which is not certain and clear or capable of being made certain is void.

Example

• X agrees to sell Y a hundred tons of oil. There is nothing to show what kind of oil was intended to sell. The agreement is void of uncertainty
• X agrees to sell to Y five hundred tons of rice at a price to be fixed by Z. There is no uncertainty to void because the price is capable to stay certain.

Not Expressly Declared Void

In order to make a valid contract, an agreement must not be one of those that are expressly declared by law to be void. The agreement that is expressly declared to be void is as follows:

1. Agreements in restraint of Marriage.
2. Agreement in restraint of trade.
3. Agreements by way of a wager.
4. Agreement to do impossible acts.
5. Agreements in restraint of legal proceedings.

Legal Relationship

An agreement is a contract only when it is made with a lawful object. Under section 23, “Every agreement of which the object or consideration is unlawful is void.”

Example

X, Y, and Z enter into an agreement for the division among them of gains acquired, or to be acquired, by them by fraud, the agreement is void as its object is unlawful

Other Legal Requirements

The agreement must be in writing, attested by the witness, and registered. If so required by any provision of law in force in our country. Some agreements such as:

1. Agreements to the transfer of immovable property
2. Agreement to pay a time-barred debt
3. An agreement to refer disputes to an arbitrator for arbitration is such an agreement that must be reduced to writing and registered before they can be legally enforced.